Impacts of hurricanes and disease on Diadema antillarum in shallow water reef and mangrove locations in St John, USVI.

The 1983-1984 mortality event of the long-spined sea urchin Diadema antillarum reduced their population by up to 99% and was accompanied by a phase shift from coral dominated to algal dominated reefs in the Caribbean. Modest rebounds of D. antillarum populations in the Caribbean have been noted, and here we document the impacts of two major hurricanes (2017, Irma and Maria) and the 2022 disease outbreak on populations of D. antillarum found by targeted surveys in the urchin zone at nine fringing reef and three mangrove sites on St. John, USVI. D. antillarum populations at the reef sites had declined by 66% five months after the hurricanes but showed significant recovery just one year later. The impact of recent disease on these populations was much more profound, with all reef populations exhibiting a significant decline (96.4% overall). Fifteen months after the disease was first noted, D. antillarum at reef sites exhibited a modest yet significant recovery (15% pre-disease density). D. antillarum populations in mangrove sites were impacted by the hurricanes but exhibited much higher density than reef sites after the disease outbreak, suggesting that at D. antillarum in some locations may be less vulnerable to disease.

Repeated detection of microbes in beverages dispensed from soda fountain machines and the effect of flushing on microbial density.

Few studies have examined patterns of microbial contamination in soda fountain beverages. In this study, patterns of microbial contamination in beverages dispensed from soda fountain machines (SFMs) sampled in June 2009 and then again 13 months later were compared. Over 70% of beverages contained microbes in both years, suggesting that contamination of beverages dispensed from SFMs can continue for long periods of time. In addition, the impact of disinfecting the dispensing nozzles and plastic tubing of SFMs, as well as the impact of machine use on microbial contamination was assessed. Managers from 26 establishments (fast-food and convenience stores) were interviewed about their SFM disinfecting practices and no correlation was found between the self-reported disinfecting practices and levels of microbial contamination in beverages dispensed from SFMs. Furthermore, in a direct study of two SFMs with an established disinfecting regimen, CFU/mL in beverages increased significantly immediately after disinfecting of plastic tubing yet returned to pre-disinfecting concentrations within 11 days. These results suggest that disinfecting may disturb microbial communities, resulting in increased planktonic microbes, but not the ultimate removal of communities themselves. Additionally, samples of a sugar and a diet soda were collected from 15 different SFMs before and after dispensing of ~0.95 L (the approximate size of a large beverage cup). Samples collected before dispensing this volume had significantly higher microbial counts than those collected after, suggesting that planktonic microbes in the beverage lines had been reduced by flushing. As there are currently no regulations regarding the disinfecting of SFM tubing or periodic inspections of beverages dispensed from SFMs, it would be valuable for consumers to encourage increased surveillance of SFMs, and to dispense some beverage before filling their cups.

Beverages obtained from soda fountain machines in the U.S. contain microorganisms, including coliform bacteria.

Ninety beverages of three types (sugar sodas, diet sodas and water) were obtained from 20 self-service and 10 personnel-dispensed soda fountains, analyzed for microbial contamination, and evaluated with respect to U.S. drinking water regulations. A follow-up study compared the concentration and composition of microbial populations in 27 beverages collected from 9 soda fountain machines in the morning as well as in the afternoon. Ice dispensed from these machines was also examined for microbial contamination. While none of the ice samples exceeded U.S. drinking water standards, coliform bacteria was detected in 48% of the beverages and 20% had a heterotrophic plate count greater than 500cfu/ml. Statistical analyses revealed no difference in levels of microbial contamination between beverage types or between those dispensed from self-service and personnel-dispensed soda fountains. More than 11% of the beverages analyzed contained Escherichia coli and over 17% contained Chryseobacterium meningosepticum. Other opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms isolated from the beverages included species of Klebsiella, Staphylococcus, Stenotrophomonas, Candida, and Serratia. Most of the identified bacteria showed resistance to one or more of the 11 antibiotics tested. These findings suggest that soda fountain machines may harbor persistent communities of potentially pathogenic microorganisms which may contribute to episodic gastric distress in the general population and could pose a more significant health risk to immunocompromised individuals. These findings have important public health implications and signal the need for regulations enforcing hygienic practices associated with these beverage dispensers.